Over-grazing
and desertification in the Syrian steppe are the root causes of war
Gianluca
Serra
5
June, 2015
Civil
war in Syria is the result of the desertification of the ecologically
fragile Syrian steppe, writes Gianluca Serra - a process that began
in 1958 when the former Bedouin commons were opened up to
unrestricted grazing. That led to a wider ecological, hydrological
and agricultural collapse, and then to a 'rural intifada' of farmers
and nomads no longer able to support themselves.
Back
in 2009, I dared to forecast that if the rampant desertification
process gripping the Syrian steppe was not halted soon, it could
eventually become a trigger for social turmoil and even for a civil
war.
I
was being interviewed by the journalist and scholar Francesca de
Chatel- and was feeling deeply disillusioned about Syrian
government's failure to heed my advice that the steppe, which covers
over half of the country's land mass, was in desperate need of
recuperation.
I
had just spent a decade (four years of which serving a UN-FAO
project aimed at rehabilitating the steppe)
trying to advocate that livestock over-grazing of the steppe
rangelands was the key cause of its ecological degradation.
However,
for the Syrian government's staff, it was far too easy to identify
and blame prolonged droughts (a natural feature of this kind of
semi-arid environment) or climate change (which was already becoming
a popular buzzword in those years). These external causes served well
as a way to escape from any responsibility - and to justify their
inaction.
In
an article
on The
Ecologist,
Alex Kirby writes that the severe 2006-2010 drought in Syria may have
contributed to the civil war. Indeed it may - but this is to
disregard the immediate cause - the disastrous over-exploitation of
the fragile steppe ecosystem.
Before
my time in Syria, as early as the 1970s, international aid
organizations such as the UN-FAO had also flagged the dire need to
not apply profit-maximization principles and to therefore not
over-exploit the fragile ecosystem of the Syrian steppe.
Denial
versus the power of an image
Finally,
tired of repeating the same words all the time, I resorted to showing
the government staff a self-explanatory picture taken in March 2008,
a year of intense and dramatic drought. An image speaks more than a
million words, I thought.
The
picture (above
right) portrayed
a fence separating a steppe terrain in two parts: the area on the
left was open to sheep grazing; the area on the right had been
instead protected for at least 10 years. The image revealed a lunar
rocky landscape on the left, and a blossoming pasture on the right.
The
image simply evidences, without need for any words, that the Syrian
steppe ecosystem is perfectly adapted to cope with droughts - yes,
even with extreme
droughts exacerbated by climate change.
However, this landscape can succumb easily to human irrationality and
indifference. In front of that image, even the most verbose
governmental staff would come to a pause - the jaw dropped for a
moment.
In
2014, three years after social unrest first and then a brutal civil
war erupted in the country, Francesca de Chatel published an
interesting essay arguing that the inability of the Syrian government
to tackle the rampant steppe's ecological crisis, steadily unfolded
over the course of 50 years of sustained mismanagement, has
been one of the key triggers of the armed conflict in
the country.
She
mentions as other critical triggers the too fast economic
liberalization plan, high rates of unemployment and corruption, and,
sure enough, a long-term and suffocating lack of freedom.
Over-exploitation
of an ecosystem
The Syrian
steppe covers
55% of the country's territory. This vast steppe land, together with
portions from Iraq, Saudi Arabia and Jordan, has been grazed
sustainably bynomadic
indigenous pastoralists (Bedouins) for
centuries (if not more). Each tribe and clan was linked to certain
seasonal pastures and this ensured the sustainability of the grazing
- a practice finely calibrated on the need of plant regeneration.
These
pastoralists of Arabia are known to have been pioneers in
establishing 'protected areas' (hema):
certain pastures were relieved from grazing, permanently or
temporary, in order to allow keeping the whole ecosystem healthy and
functional.
The
beginning of the ecological degradation and destruction came with the
modern state, so keen to uncritically import ideas of maximization of
agricultural yields from the Soviet Union: in particular the central
government decided to nationalize
the steppe in 1958,
establishing de
facto an open
access system -
a well known recipe for ecological нdisaster.
Through
this arrangement the customary link between the natural resource and
its user was interrupted - abruptly disowning the traditional
ecological knowledge of this ancient people. The pastures, not
managed and protected anymore by the tribes, started to be
over-grazed by free-ranging pastoralists.
A
major role in this unfolding disaster was played by affluent urban
investors who threw thousands of livestock into the steppe turning
the grazing into a large-scale, totally unsustainable, industrial
practice.
A
similar sort of story of gross mismanagement took place in the
eastern part of the Syria's steppe land, the territory east to the
Euphrates, allocated to intensive
agriculture via irrigation through
underground water.
Water
has been pumped from limited underground reserves without much
control for decades - so that wells had to be dug every year deeper
and deeper with increasing consumption of fuel.
Year
by year, desertification sets in
The
alternation of wet and dry periods (sometimes lasting up to 5-7
years) is a key structural and natural feature of this kind of
environment. The relentless ecological degradation of this semi-arid
fragile ecosystem produced a gradual and steady decrease of
its resilience in
the face of cycles of droughts made increasingly more severe and
frequent by a long-term
regional drying pattern linked to the greenhouse effects.
Note
that increasing the resilience of ecosystems is actually one of the
key natural
solutions as adaptation to climate change,
as it is currently referred to within the circles of climate change
international aid work.
While
in the past the steppe was able to recover even following intense
periods of droughts, during the past decade pastoralists and farmers
have started to complain about a sharp and ineluctable reduction in
soil fertility and an increase of frequency of fierce dust storms due
to erosion.
An
evident desertification process has been on display across the steppe
land for quite some time. Recommendations to reduce the ecological
pressure on this fragile environment - from myself and others - went
unheard.
Ecological
crisis fans the flames of rebellion
Following
a recent cycle of intense drought during 2006-2010, the agriculture
system eventually collapsed in eastern Syria greatly facilitated by
an abrupt halt of government subsidies and consequent soaring prices
of fuel for wells.
At
the same time, the ecological impoverishment of the rangelands
reached unheard-of levels. "The
drought only brought to light a man-made disaster", said
a local journalistfrom
eastern Syria to the International
Crisis Group in
2009.
This
combined ecological crisis of croplands and rangelands created an
unprecedented humanitarian crisis in the rural areas of the country,
followed by massive internal displacements, that the government
clearly failed to tackle and manage.
For
the first time ever Syria, known to be proudly autonomous in terms of
food production (and actually even exporting food), had to rely on a
massive international emergency food aid in 2008.
It
is therefore not a coincidence that the uprising in 2011 started in
provincial towns rather than in the major urban centres of Damascus
and Aleppo, Francesca De Chatel argues, aptly defining the rebellion
as a "rural
Intifada" -
one in which Bedouin
tribes of steppe origin played a key role.
The same
sort of conclusions were
reached in analysing the triggers of the Darfur war that that took
place from 2003 to 2010 not far from Syria. Darfur suffered from
precisely the same sort of over-exploited semi-arid ecosystem, while
one again rural and indigenous people were the victims, including
nomadic pastoralists.
Life-enabling
ecological conditions first
Only
in recent times has the key role of ecological conditions in shaping
the socio-economy of human populations and civilizations been fully
acknowledged and understood. Thanks to a solid western 'modern'
cultural legacy, until a short time ago, there had been quite strong
resistance preventing an appreciation of the link.
Still,
in our current consumerist society's mainstream (sub)culture, nature
is perceived as nothing else than a commodity or an ornament
for National
Geographic covers.
But certainly our lifestyle and economy is still completely dependent
on available natural resources and
on functional ecosystem services.
The
good news seems to be that eventually and increasingly these days,
the link between ecology and economy (and socio-politics) is
analysed, elaborated and underlined. After all, ecology and economy
have the same suffix 'eco', derived from the Greek oikos(home),
not by coincidence.
Mismanagement
of earth's resources
Climate
change is a
major threat to the whole human civilization in
the short and medium term - as it is already emerging
in the eastern Mediterranean and Syria,
and other parts of the world. This ultimate challenge is like the
last call for humanity to start reforming deeply an
anti-life economic system,
as well argued by Naomi Klein in her last book This
Changes Everything.
Hopefully,
this new awareness will be the basis for a new era in which the
economy is deeply reformed in
line with the principles of ecology. The time has come to wisely
adapt the 'norms and rules of the house' (= Economy in Greek) to the
foundation principles of the house (Ecology= 'knowledge of the house'
in Greek) - and not the other way round, as we have thought and done
during the past 200 years.
Otherwise,
we will simply re-enact once again the same kind of drama that
seemingly has already occurred innumerable times on the planet in the
course of the human civilization parable. Civilizations have risen,
stuck to their core values and then collapsed because they did not
change.
As
David Suzuki once observed: "There
are some things in the world we can't change - gravity, entropy, the
speed of light, and our biological nature that requires clean air,
clean water, clean soil, clean energy and biodiversity for our health
and well being. Protecting the biosphere should be our highest
priority or else we sicken and die.
"Other
things, like capitalism, free enterprise, the economy, currency, the
market, are not forces of nature, we invented them. They are not
immutable and we can change them. It makes no sense to elevate
economics above the biosphere."
Certainly
- with the notable exception of the ancient
wisdom embodied
in the tribal memories of indigenous peoples - Homo
sapiens does
not excel in having a long-lasting memory.
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